Science and the Martial Arts is Part of



- the abstracts -

Heart rate, blood lactate responses and ratings of perceived exertion to 1,000 punches and 1,000 kicks in collegiate karate practitioners.
Author
Imamura H; Yoshimura Y; Uchida K; Tanaka A; Nishimura S; Nakazawa AT
Address
Department of Food and Nutrition, Nakamura Gakuen University, Fukuoka, Japan.
Source
Appl Human Sci, 16(1):9-13 1997 Jan
Abstract
The purpose of this study was: 1) to investigate the responses of heart rate (HR), blood lactate and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) to 1,000 punches and 1,000 kicks in collegiate highly skilled (BB Group) and novice (WB Group) karate practitioners; and, 2) to compare RPE obtained from the subjects to RPE expected by their coaches. The mean values of HR, percent of maximal HR (% HRmax), percent of maximal HR reserve (% MHRR), blood lactate and RPE in 1,000 punches for the BB Group were 102.5 +/- 14.8 beats. min-1, 53.1 +/- 8.5%, 27.1 +/- 12.7%, 0.8 +/- 0.2 mmol.1-1 and 12.2 +/- 1.2 respectively, and for the WB Group were 116.1 +/- 17.9 beats. min-1, 58.1 +/- 7.7%, 35.2 +/- 13.3%, 1.2 +/- 0.6 mmol.1-1 and 12.8 +/- 1.2, respectively. Likewise, the mean values in 1,000 kicks for the BB Group were 127.4 +/- 12.4 beats. min-1, 66.0 +/- 8.0%, 47.0 +/- 12.5%, 1.3 +/- 0.4 mmol.1-1 and 14.2 +/- 1.2, respectively, and for the WB Group were 137.0 +/- 14.4 beats.min-1, 70.1 +/- 7.4%, 52.0 +/- 12.8%, 2.4 +/- 0.8 mmol. 1-1 and 16.3 +/- 1.5, respectively. These responses to 1,000 punches and 1,000 kicks were moderate, and the RPE for 1,000 punches in both BB and WB Groups and for 1,000 kicks in the BB Group were significantly lower than the RPE expected by their coaches.     

Basic Beijing twenty-four forms of T'ai Chi exercise and average velocity of sway.
Author
Shih J
Address
Department of Health, Wellness and Exercise Science/274, College of Human Community Science, University of Nevada, Reno 89557-0036, USA. [email protected]
Source
Percept Mot Skills, 84(1):287-90 1997 Feb
Abstract
To examine the effect of 16 weeks of T'ai Chi exercise on the average velocity of sway 11 subjects were pre- and posttested by using the AMTI force platform. Analysis indicated that T'ai Chi exercise was associated with substantial changes in the sway velocities in anterior and posterior directions for the group but was not assessed against any control groups performance. That remains to be evaluated.  

Brief aikido training versus karate and golf training and university students' scores on self-esteem, anxiety, and expression of anger.
Author
Foster YA
Address
Wichita State University, KS, USA.
Source
Percept Mot Skills, 84(2):609-10 1997 Apr
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to investigate if aikido training for 10 weeks for 69 beginning students is effective in improving selected aspects of personality. The hypothesis was that subjects' scores would significantly increase on self-esteem but decrease on anxiety and anger expression. Change in means from pre- to posttest did not support the hypothesis.  

The effect of Tai Chi Quan and computerized balance training on postural stability in older subjects. Atlanta FICSIT Group. Frailty and Injuries: Cooperative Studies on Intervention Techniques.
Author
Wolf SL; Barnhart HX; Ellison GL; Coogler CE
Address
Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. [email protected]
Source
Phys Ther, 77(4):371-81; discussion 382-4 1997 Apr
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: This study explored whether two exercise programs would affect the ability to minimize postural sway of 72 relatively inactive, older subjects who participated in the Atlanta FICSIT trial. SUBJECTS: Subjects were randomly assigned to (1) a computerized balance training group, (2) a tai chi group, or (3) an educational group serving as a control for exercise. Each group consisted of 24 members. METHODS: All subjects were evaluated under four postural conditions before, immediately after, and 4 months following their respective interventions, each of which was given over 15 weeks. RESULTS: Platform balance measures revealed greater stability after training among subjects in the balance training group but little change in stability among subjects in the tai chi and educational group. Subjects in the tai chi group were less afraid of falling after training compared with subjects in other groups with similar covariates. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION: Unlike computerized balance training, tai chi does not improve measures of postural stability. Because tai chi delayed onset to first or multiple falls in older individuals, this effect does not appear to be associated with measures of enhanced postural stability. Tai chi may gain its success, in part, from promoting confidence without reducing sway rather than primarily facilitating a reduction in sway-based measures.  

Performance time transformed by count as a determinant of difficulty in the Shotokan karate Heian kata set.
Author
Layton C; Lawrence JM
Address
Department of Psychology, University of London Institute of Psychiatry, England.
Source
Percept Mot Skills, 84(3 Pt 1):989-90 1997 Jun
Abstract
Black-belt subjects (10 men) were timed on each of the five Heian kata and the scores transformed by count. Trend analyses showed that increased performance time was significantly related to assumed complexity in Heian ranking.

 

Injury rates in children participating in taekwondo competition.
Author
Pieter W; Zemper ED
Address
School of Health and Sports Science, University of North London, United Kingdom. [email protected]
Source
J Trauma, 43(1):89-95; discussion 95-6 1997 Jul
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To report rates of injuries sustained during Junior taekwondo competitions. DESIGN: Prospective. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data were collected with simple check-off forms that describe the athlete, nature, site, circumstances, and severity of the injury at three major taekwondo tournaments involving a total of 3,341 boys and 917 girls. MAIN RESULTS: No difference was found between boys (58.34/1,000 athlete-exposures) and girls (56.57/1,000 athlete-exposures) in total injury rate (p > 0.05). Collapsed over gender, significant differences (p = 0.013) in injury rates of body parts were found with the lower extremities (21.83/1,000 athlete-exposures) ranked first. Unblocked attacks are the major cause of injury in both boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS: Coaches are advised to work on the blocking skills of their Junior taekwondo athletes. No head contact for children in taekwondo competition should also be considered.  

[The intake of proteins and essential amino acids in top-competing women athletes]
Author
Nuviala Mateo RJ; Lapieza La´inez MG
Address
Servicio de Bioqu´imica, Hospital Cl´inico Universitario de Zaragoza, Espa~na.
Source
Nutr Hosp, 12(2):85-91 1997 Mar-Apr
Abstract
In a group of 84 sportswomen (19 karatekas, 20 handball and 20 basketball players and 25 middle- and long-distance runners) the intake of protein and essential amino acids was assessed, as well as the urinary excretion of urea and creatinine. Simultaneously, we have studied 82 women who did not underwent physical activity (control group). After a 7-days long recall, by means of the food weighing method, was assessed by a computerized program the daily average intake of: total energy, macronutrients, proteins of animal origin and essential amino acids. The determination of urinary urea and creatinine was made in a 24-hours sample. The protein intake was significantly higher (p < 0.01) in basketball and handball players and in the runners than in the control group. The protein intake related with the body weight (g/kg) was significantly higher in basketball players (p < 0.05) and in the runners (p < 0.01), taking both the sportswomen and the sedentary women quantities higher than 0.8 g/kg/day established as minimum allowances. The amino acids intake related with the body weight (mg/kg), exceeded widely in all the studied groups the minimum recommended for each of them, outstanding the values significantly high (p < 0,01) found for all the amino acids in the runners. Both for the urinary excretion of the urea and the creatinine, the highest values correspond to the runners. All the sportswomen have superior protein and essential amino acids intake in relation with women without physical activity. The higher body losses of nitrogen in the form of urea and creatinine found in the runners are due to their higher protein/kg of body weight intake.  

Self-report benefits of Tai Chi practice by older adults.
Author
Kutner NG; Barnhart H; Wolf SL; McNeely E; Xu T
Address
Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Source
J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci, 52(5):P242-6 1997 Sep
Abstract
Older persons who are willing to begin exercise programs are often not willing to continue them. At the Atlanta FICSIT (Frailty and Injuries: Cooperative Studies of Intervention Techniques) site, individuals aged 70+ were randomized to Tai Chi (TC), individualized balance training (BT), and exercise control education (ED) groups for 15 weeks. In a follow-up assessment 4 months post-intervention, 130 subjects responded to exit interview questions asking about perceived benefits of participation. Both TC and BT subjects reported increased confidence in balance and movement, but only TC subjects reported that their daily activities and their overall life had been affected; many of these subjects had changed their normal physical activity to incorporate ongoing TC practice. The data suggest that when mental as well as physical control is perceived to be enhanced, with a generalized sense of improvement in overall well-being, older persons' motivation to continue exercising also increases.  

Psychological research on the martial arts: an addendum to Fuller's review [comment]
Author
Columbus PJ; Rice DL
Address
Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville 37996.
Source
Br J Med Psychol, 64 ( Pt 2)():127-35 1991 Jun
Abstract
Most psychological research on the martial arts has been conducted from a positivist stance, and Fuller's (1988) review of research reflected a positivist tone while suggesting that therapeutic influences may be achieved from martial arts training methods abstracted from their traditional setting. This addendum cites two important contextual problems influencing martial arts research. First, the martial arts are influenced by Oriental styles of thinking such as Taoism and Zen Buddhism that are difficult to grasp from a Western positivist point of view. We suggest that phenomenology seems to have some stylistic parallels with Oriental thinking and appears to offer the Westerner a point of entry toward understanding the martial arts as Oriental arts. Second, the cultural and psychological values and meanings of the Oriental martial arts may change when situated in a Western context, thus changing their method, content, and therapeutic influence. We suggest that a non-positivist and context-sensitive approach such as phenomenology might clarify the contextual intricacy of the martial arts and thereby facilitate improved theoretical foundations and empirical research of martial arts participation as a psychological phenomenon.  

Perceived vulnerability and control of martial arts and physical fitness students.
Author
Madden ME
Address
Lawrence University, Appleton, WI 54912, USA.
Source
Percept Mot Skills, 80(3 Pt 1):899-910 1995 Jun
Abstract
Anecdotal reports and limited research suggest that enrolling in self-defense courses can enhance feelings of control and reduce feelings of vulnerability; however, much self-defense is taught in the context of martial arts courses. To assess the effects of martial arts courses on perceptions of vulnerability and control, 83 students in physical fitness and 59 students in martial arts courses at 10 randomly chosen large universities responded to questionnaires. Martial arts students scored lower on control, higher on vulnerability, and higher on perceived likelihood of being injured than fitness students while enrolled in their courses. A year later, regardless of whether they had continued training, they scored higher on control and lower on vulnerability. Neither gender nor prior history of assault was related to responses. Enrolling in martial arts courses may not enhance people's feelings of control, at least in the initial stages of training.  

An analysis of the relationship between hostility and training in the martial arts.
Author
Daniels K; Thornton EW
Address
Department of Psychology, University of Liverpool, UK.
Source
J Sports Sci, 8(2):95-101 1990 Summer
Abstract
Contrasting views and data are available on the issue of whether combative sports facilitate or reduce aggression. In the present study levels of hostility were assessed in two groups of martial arts students using the Buss-Durkee Inventory. Levels of hostility on a variety of the sub-scales were compared with scores from similar samples of participants in a body contact, aggressive but non-combative sport (rugby football) and a competitive sport with no body contact or direct aggression (badminton). When the effects of age and length of training were controlled by use of partial correlation there was no evidence to support group differences in either the combined score from the varied sub-scales of the inventory or the more specific assaultive sub-scale. However, there was evidence to suggest a significant effect of length of training on hostility levels in martial artists. Beginners attracted to the martial arts were more hostile but the hostility declined with the duration of training. No difference was apparent in this respect for students participating in either jui jitsu or karate. It is suggested that such differential effects with respect to length of training may lead to the overall absence of the between-sport differences. The results provide tentative support for the notion that the discipline of the martial arts may reduce ssaultive hostility rather than serve as a model for such behaviour, yet support the need for prospective longitudinal studies on intra-individual hostility.  

Martial arts injuries.
Author
Wilkerson LA
Address
Center for Sports Medicine, Orthopaedics, and Family Practice, Kissimmee, Fla, USA.
Source
J Am Osteopath Assoc, 97(4):221-6 1997 Apr
Abstract
In the United States, approximately 1.5 million to 2 million persons practice the martial arts. It is the general belief that martial arts are safe, with little thought given to the physical forces involved. Some enthusiasts gravitate to the martial arts to learn self-defense, whereas others participate to improve cardiovascular fitness, flexibility, and self-esteem. Some join for the structured exercise programs, whereas others desire the artistic expression or have a need to compete. Injuries involve the head and neck region, trunk, and extremities. Soft tissue trauma, hematomas, and lacerations are some of the most common injuries. Occasionally fractures occur, most often involving the hands and digits. The neurosurgical literature indicates that wearing headgear increases the shearing injury to nerve fibers and neurons in the brain in proportion to the degree of acceleration to the head. Three case presentations illustrate death resulting from anterior chest trauma.  

Morbidity and mortality in the martial arts: a warning.
Author
Oler M; Tomson W; Pepe H; Yoon D; Branoff R; Branch J
Address
Halifax Medical Center, Daytona Beach, FL.
Source
J Trauma, 31(2):251-3 1991 Feb
Abstract
Approximately 1.5 to 2 million Americans participate in the martial arts. Injury anecdotes are reported from 10 years of providing medical coverage at martial arts activities. Included are data from two national Tae Kwon Do tournaments, one adult and one junior level. Previously unreported injuries, including a video-recorded fatality, demonstrate the danger inherent in participation. Of particular concern is the potential for serious neurologic injury. Recommendations are made for reducing the severity and frequency of injuries.

 
Psychotherapeutic aspects of the martial arts.
Author
Weiser M; Kutz I; Kutz SJ; Weiser D
Address
Shalvata Mental Health Center, Hod Hasharon, Israel.
Source
Am J Psychother, 49(1):118-27 1995 Winter
Abstract
Formerly understood by Western thought as only a set of fighting skills, the Martial Arts (MAs) have come to be seen, in the psychological literature about the MAs, as a comprehensive approach to both physical and mental health. The MAs enhance self-esteem through the provision of physical activity and group experience, and the teaching of relaxation, concentration, assertiveness, and directiveness and honesty in communication. Thus, they are understood to be a legitimate form of therapy, for both "neurotic" and some chronically mentally ill patients. It is proposed in this paper, that the MAs can also be a useful supplement to verbal psychotherapy, as they foster and expose feelings through a physical modality, which can then be observed and analyzed in the modality of verbal psychotherapy. A case report illustrates how the MAs produce feelings and reveal problems, which are brought into the psychotherapy arena and analyzed.  

Trends in sports injuries, 1982-1988: an in-depth study on four types of sport.
Author
Tenvergert EM; Ten Duis HJ; Klasen HJ
Address
Department of Traumatology, University Hospital of Groningen, The Netherlands.
Source
J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 32(2):214-20 1992 Jun
Abstract
In this study, we analyzed the records of both inpatients and outpatients which were treated for acute sports injuries in the Trauma Department of the University of Groningen (The Netherlands) during the years 1982 to 1988. We examined whether there was a trend in sports injuries in this time period. The study comprised four types of sports, i.e., soccer, volleyball, gymnastics, and martial arts. The absolutely highest rates of injuries across the seven years were found in soccer, followed by gymnastics, volleyball, and martial arts. Injuries sustained at participating in soccer, volleyball, and gymnastics involved for the major part the lower extremities, followed by injuries of the upper extremities, whereas the reverse pattern was observed for patients who participated in martial arts. For all four types of sport, the ankle and foot were the most frequently site of injury of the lower extremities. Sprains and strains were the major types of injury. Most injuries were seen at ages between 10 and 30 years. The ratio of male to female patients within age groups did not differ significantly across the seven years. We concluded that, except for martial arts, the increased participation in sports in the last decade was not accompanied with a change in the patterns of sports injuries by the patients' age, sex, and number and nature of the injury. This consistency in results can be used to guide the development of prevention programs aimed at a reduction of injuries in specific sports.  

The martial arts and mental health: the challenge of managing energy.
Author
Seitz FC; Olson GD; Locke B; Quam R
Address
WAMI Medical School Program, Montana State University.
Source
Percept Mot Skills, 70(2):459-64 1990 Apr
Abstract
The effective management of energy is an important dimension in the martial arts as well as the mental health professions. The Oriental concept of Ki is described, noting its Indian, Chinese, and Japanese development. Ki and the transfer of energy is studied through the martial encounter, using concepts borrowed from Japanese swordsmanship. Ki is also discussed from a developmental context as youngsters progress in Tae Kwon Do training. In examining the disciplines of Aikido, Tae Kwon Do, and Karate, it becomes clear that more is involved than kicking, punching, and throwing bodies on the floor. These martial arts have some important statements to make in the area of mental health, particularly in terms of energy--within our bodies, psyches, interpersonal relationships, and the universe.  

Three bodies of practice in a traditional South Indian martial art.
Author
Zarrilli PB
Address
Department of Theatre and Drama, University of Wisconsin-Madison 53706.
Source
Soc Sci Med, 28(12):1289-309 1989
Abstract
This paper describes three interconnected conceptions of the body in kalarippayattu, the martial tradition of Kerala, South India. It traces continuities and discontinuities among concepts and practices recorded in classic
Source
texts and contemporary martial practice for each of the three 'bodies of practice'. The first is the fluid body of humors and saps. The second is the body as superstructure composed of bones, muscles, and vital spots (marma-s), which supports the fluid body. The concepts and practices of the first two bodies are based on the regional tradition of Ayurveda. They constitute the external physical body (sthula-´sarira). The third, subtle or interior body (suksma-´sarira) is thought to be encased within the physical body. It provides an experiential map of practice and is the basis for higher stages of meditation. The long-term practice of the martial art (1) makes the body fluid so that healthful congruence of the humors occurs, (2) establishes an intuitive and practical knowledge of vital points (marma) useful in fighting (prayogam) and in treating injuries, and (3) purifies the subtle body and awakens the internal vital energy (prana-vayu) that is manifest as the power (´sakti) of the master in combat or medical practice. The paper concludes with a discussion of the interrelationship between these three concepts of the body in the accomplished practice of the martial practitioner.  

Dynamics of the martial arts high front kick.
Author
Sørensen H; Zacho M; Simonsen EB; Dyhre-Poulsen P; Klausen K
Address
Department of Medical Anatomy, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
Source
J Sports Sci, 14(6):483-95 1996 Dec
Abstract
Fast unloaded movements (i.e. striking, throwing and kicking) are typically performed in a proximo-distal sequence, where initially high proximal segments accelerate while distal segments lag behind, after which proximal segments decelerate while distal segments accelerate. The aims of this study were to examine whether proximal segment deceleration is performed actively by antagonist muscles or is a passive consequence of distal segment movement, and whether distal segment acceleration is enhanced by proximal segment deceleration. Seventeen skilled taekwon-do practitioners were filmed using a high-speed camera while performing a high front kick. During kicking, EMG recordings were obtained from five major lower extremity muscles. Based on the kinematic data, inverse dynamics computations were performed yielding muscle moments and motion-dependent moments. The results indicated that thigh deceleration was caused by motion-dependent moments arising from lower leg motion and not by active deceleration. This was supported by the EMG recordings. Lower leg acceleration was caused partly by a knee extensor muscle moment and partly by a motion-dependent moment arising from thigh angular velocity. Thus, lower leg acceleration was not enhanced by thigh deceleration. On the contrary, thigh deceleration, although not desirable, is unavoidable because of lower leg acceleration.    

Exploring the basis for Tai Chi Chuan as a therapeutic exercise approach.
Author
Wolf SL; Coogler C; Xu T
Address
Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
Source
Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 78(8):886-92 1997 Aug
Abstract
For many centuries Tai Chi has been a martial art form, practiced primarily in Oriental cultures. For the past 300 years this movement approach has been used as an exercise form, practiced by millions of Chinese elderly people. To date, virtually no information exists about the therapeutic elements of this intriguing movement sequence. This article provides a historical review of existing documentation of reputed Tai Chi benefits. The 108 "forms" of Tai Chi Chuan are reduced to 10 composite forms for ease of application of these forms to older individuals within a reasonable time frame. An effort is set forth to identify the potential therapeutic elements within these forms.  

Martial arts injuries. The results of a five year national survey.
Author
Birrer RB; Halbrook SP
Address
Department of Family Practice, Geisenger Medical Center, Danville, PA 17822.
Source
Am J Sports Med, 16(4):408-10 1988 Jul-Aug
Abstract
A 5 year national survey of martial arts was done using the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS). Seventy-four percent of the injuries involved the extremities and 95% were mild to moderate in nature. Even though most of the injury types were contusions/abrasions (36%). lacerations (14%), and sprains/strains (28%), 15% were dislocations and fractures. Five percent of all injuries were severe, and there were 18 hospitalizations. There were no deaths. Weapon-related injuries were rare and never serious. Overall, the risk of serious injury in the sport was found to be low, especially when compared to other contact sports.  

Martial arts: a perspective on their evolution, injuries, and training formats.
Author
Jaffe L; Minkoff J
Address
University of Medicine & Dentistry, Newark, New Jersey.
Source
Orthop Rev, 17(2):208-9, 213-5, 220-1 1988 Feb
Abstract
The martial arts are very popular today as both spectator and participant sports, and a large percentage of the participants are children. More injuries are sustained in tournament competition and many are preventable by using protective gear and by limiting contact. Medical screening and proper execution of technique are also important prophylactic modalities.  

Hypnosis, Ericksonian hypnotherapy, and Aikido.
Author
Windle R; Samko M
Address
Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene 97403.
Source
Am J Clin Hypn, 34(4):261-70 1992 Apr
Abstract
Several key Ericksonian concepts find cross-cultural validation and practical application in the Japanese martial art of Aikido. The Aikido psychophysiological state of centering shares several important attributes with the trance state, particularly in the relational aspects of shared trance. In Aikido methodology for dealing with others, blending is an almost exact parallel to Ericksonian utilization. The Aikido view of resistance offers an increased understanding of strategic/Ericksonian approaches. Therapist training may be enhanced by combining Aikido principles with traditional methods.  

An anatomical analysis of Aikido's third teaching: an investigation of Sankyo.
Author
Olson GD; Seitz FC; Guldbrandsen F
Address
Department of Health and Human Development, Montana State University, Bozeman 59717.
Source
Percept Mot Skills, 78(3 Pt 2):1347-52 1994 Jun
Abstract
Sankyo, one of Aikido's strongest martial art techniques for peacefully subduing an attacker, produces pain in the hand, wrist, and forearm. Specific target muscles, tendons, and ligaments are identified through an investigation of Sankyo's expert application to two anatomists and a male cadaver.  

Martial arts for the quadriplegic.
Author
Pandavela J; Gordon S; Gordon G; Jones C
Source
Am J Phys Med, 65(1):17-29 1986 Feb
Abstract
A program has been developed for teaching of martial arts to the spinal cord injured. Despite the great challenges, quadriplegic patients have been able not only to participate along with paraplegics, but have helped to develop innovative methods to modify techniques to their abilities. The benefits of the program are described.  

Anthropometric somatotype of Italian sport participants.
Author
Gualdi-Russo E; Graziani I
Address
Istituto di Antropologia, Universit`a degli Studi di Bologna, Italy.
Source
J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 33(3):282-91 1993 Sep
Abstract
Somatotypes of 1593 young Italian sport participants (717 males and 876 females) were described and analyzed. The average somatotype for sport participants was 2.7-4.7-2.7 for males and 3.6-3.7-2.8 for females. The predominance of mesomorphy on the other two components was found in all sport-groups examined. This was particularly evident in males for gymnasts and rowers and in females for martial arts competitors. As for sexual dimorphism, females were endo-mesomorphs, while males were balanced mesomorphs. Somatotypes show statistically significant changes with the level of performance in some sport-groups with an increase in the mesomorphic component (in ballgames and martial arts) and in the endomorphic component (in swimming). Comparisons with other sport-groups from literature were greatly limited by several genetic and environmental factors.  

Cardiorespiratory function, flexibility, and body composition among geriatric Tai Chi Chuan practitioners.
Author
Lan C; Lai JS; Wong MK; Yu ML
Address
Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, R.O.C.
Source
Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 77(6):612-6 1996 Jun
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the health-related fitness of geriatric Tai Chi Chuan (TCC) practitioners. DESIGN: Case-control study of a TCC group and a group of sedentary controls. SETTING: Research project at a hospital-based exercise physiology laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: Seventy-six community-dwelling senior persons (mean age 69.3 +/- 3.9 yr), a TCC group that included 22 men and 19 women and a control group of sedentary subjects that included 18 men and 17 women with matched age and body size. INTERVENTION: The TCC group had practiced TCC regularly for 11.8 +/- 5.6 years, with an exercise frequency of 4.3 +/- 1.3 times per week. Each session included 20 minutes of warm-up, 24 minutes of TCC training, and 10 minutes of cool-down. Exercise intensity was estimated to exceed 70% of maximal heart rate (HRmax). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Breath-by-breath measurement of cardiorespiratory function was obtained during the incremental exercise of leg cycling. Flexibility of thoracic/lumbar spine was measured by an electronic inclinometer. Percentages of body fat was calculated from biceps and subcapsular skinfolds. RESULTS: In the peak exercise, men in the TCC group showed 19% higher peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) in comparison with their sedentary counterparts (26.9 +/- 4.7 mL/kg/min vs 21.8 +/- 3.1 mL/kg/min). Women in the TCC group also showed 18% higher VO2peak than in the sedentary group (20.1 +/- 2.9 mL/kg/ min vs 16.5 +/- 2.0 mL/kg/min). The TCC group also showed higher oxygen uptake at the ventilatory threshold. In addition, the TCC practitioners were characterized by greater flexibility and lower percentage of body fat in comparison with their sedentary counterparts. CONCLUSION: It is concluded that TCC training has benefits for health-related fitness, and it may be prescribed as a suitable conditioning exercise for the elderly.  

Heart rate response and perceived exertion during twenty consecutive karate sparring matches.
Author
Imamura H; Yoshimura Y; Uchida K; Tanaka A; Nishimura S; Nakazawa AT
Address
Department of Food & Nutrition, Nakamura Gakuen University.
Source
Aust J Sci Med Sport, 28(4):114-5 1996 Dec
Abstract
This study investigated the changes in heart rate (HR) and perceived exertion ratings (RPE) of 20 consecutive karate sparring matches each of 2 minutes duration. The resting and maximal HR (HRmax) responses to the maximal treadmill test were 69.8 +/- 2.9 beats.min-1 and 198.5 +/- 8.2 beats.min-1, respectively. The resting HR before the 20 sparring matches was 83.5 +/- 11.3 beats min-1. The mean HR during the 20 sparring matches was 191.8 +/- 9.4 beats.min-1 which was equal to 96.7 +/- 4.2% of HRmax. At the end of the 20 sparring matches, the mean RPE obtained was 19 +/- 2. The results of this study suggest that the subjects could continue the 20 sparring matches for about 40 minutes at the intensity close to the HRmax.  

Tai Chi Chih: an exercise option for older adults.
Author
Schaller KJ
Source
J Gerontol Nurs, 22(10):12-7 1996 Oct
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of Tai Chi Chih on balance, flexibility, mood, health status, and blood pressure in a sample of community-dwelling elders. A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design was used in the study. Participants were recruited from a senior center located in the suburbs of a large metropolitan area. The experimental group consisted of 24 volunteers over the age of 55 who performed 60 minutes of Tai Chi Chih once a week for 10 weeks and practiced at home. The control group consisted of 22 volunteers who continued with their current level of activity. Analysis of covariance revealed a significant difference between the two groups on balance (F = 4.3, p < .05). This study suggests that Tai Chi Chih is a safe and enjoyable form of exercise that might improve balance in community-dwelling elders.  

Energy cost and energy sources in karate.
Author
Francescato MP; Talon T; di Prampero PE
Address
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biomediche, Universit`a degli Studi di Udine, Italy.
Source
Eur J Appl Physiol, 71(4):355-61 1995
Abstract
Energy costs and energy sources in karate (wado style) were studied in eight male practitioners (age 23.8 years, mass 72.3 kg, maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) 36.8 ml.min-1.kg-1) performing six katas (formal, organized movement sequences) of increasing duration (from approximately 10 s to approximately 80 s). Oxygen consumption (VO2) was determined during pre-exercise rest, the exercise period and the first 270 s of recovery in five consecutive expired gas collections. A blood sample for lactate (la-) analysis was taken 5 min after the end of exercise. The overall amount of O2 consumed during the exercise and in the following recovery increased linearly with the duration of exercise (t) from approximately 1.51 (for t equal to 10.5 s (SD 1.6)) to approximately 5.8 l, for t equal to 81.5 s (SD 1.0). The energy release from la- production (VO2la-) calculated assuming that an increase of 1 mmol.l-1 la- corresponded to a VO2 of 3 mlO2.kg-1 was negligible for t equal to or less than 20 s and increased to 17.3 ml.kg-1 (la- = 5.8 mmol.l-1 above resting values) for t equal approximately to 80 s. The overall energy requirement (VO2eq) as given by the sum of VO2 and VO2la- was described by VO2eq = 0.87 + 0.071.t (n = 64; r2 = 0.91), where VO2eq is in litres and t in seconds. This equation shows that the metabolic power (VO2eq.t-1) for this karate style is very high: from approximately 9.5 l.min-1 for t equal to 10 s to approximately 4.9 l.min-1 for t equal to 80 s, i.e. from 3.5 to 1.8 times the subjects' VO2max. The fraction of VO2eq derived from the amount of O2 consumed during the exercise increased from 11% for t equal to 10 s to 41% for t equal to 80 s whereas VO2la- was negligible for t equal to or less than 20 s and increased to 13% for t equal to 80 s. The remaining fraction (from 90% for t equal to 10 s to 46% for t equal to 80 s), corresponding to the amount of O2 consumed in the recovery after exercise, is derived from anaerobic alactic sources, i.e. from net splitting of high energy phosphates during the exercise.  

Changes in haemodynamic parameters following Tai Chi Chuan and aerobic exercise in patients recovering from acute myocardial infarction.
Author
Channer KS; Barrow D; Barrow R; Osborne M; Ives G
Address
Department of Cardiology, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield, UK.
Source
Postgrad Med J, 72(848):349-51 1996 Jun
Abstract
In this study, 126 patients (90 males, average age 56 years, range 39-80) were randomised to Wu Chian-Ch'uan style Tai Chi (38), aerobic exercise (41) or a non-exercise support group (47) following acute myocardial infarction. Patients attended twice weekly for three weeks then weekly for a further five weeks. Heart rate and blood pressure were recorded before and after each session. Over the 11 sessions of exercise there was a negative trend in diastolic blood pressure only in the Tai Chi group (Rs = 0.79, p < 0.01). Significant trends in systolic blood pressure occurred in both exercise groups (Rs = 0.64 and 0.63, both p < 0.05). Only four (8%) patients completed the support group eight-week programme which was less than the number completing Tai Chi (82%; p < 0.001) and aerobic exercise groups (73%; p < 0.001).  

Anticipatory postural adjustment and T'ai Chi Ch'uan.
Author
Forrest WR
Address
Department of Kinesiology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park 16802, USA.
Source
Biomed Sci Instrum, 33():65-70 1997
Abstract
Recently much attention has focused on T'ai Chi Ch'uan as a method of improving balance and reducing the risk of falls in the elderly. Little has been done to determine the mechanism of these improvements. This study examined the effects of a sixteen week training program on anticipatory postural adjustments (APA). Eight subjects (median age 36.5) in good health, with no prior training in T'ai Chi were tested. The battery of tests included load dropping of 2.2 kg loads by the subjects standing on an unstable board placed on a force platform. The level and direction of instability were varied. The results show counterintuitive reductions in the APAs of several muscle groups while the stability of standing improved. We interpret the findings as an indication that practicing T'ai Chi leads to a greater use of the elasticity of the peripheral structures involving muscles, ligaments, and tendons while the participation of the central neutral structures in postural equilibrium is decreased.  

Reducing frailty and falls in older persons: an investigation of Tai Chi and computerized balance training. Atlanta FICSIT Group. Frailty and Injuries: Cooperative Studies of Intervention Techniques [see comments]
Author
Wolf SL; Barnhart HX; Kutner NG; McNeely E; Coogler C; Xu T
Address
Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Source
J Am Geriatr Soc, 44(5):489-97 1996 May
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of two exercise approaches, Tai Chi (TC) and computerized balance training (BT), on specified primary outcomes (biomedical, functional, and psychosocial indicators of frailty) and secondary outcomes (occurrence of falls). DESIGN: The Atlanta FICSIT (Frailty and Injuries: Cooperative Studies of Intervention Techniques), a prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial with three arms (TC, BT, and education [ED]. Intervention length was 15 weeks, with primary outcomes measured before and after intervention and at 4-month follow-up. Falls were monitored continuously throughout the study. SETTING: Persons aged 70 and older living in the community. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 200 participants, 162 women and 38 men; mean age was 76.2. MEASUREMENTS: Biomedical (strength, flexibility, cardiovascular endurance, body composition), functional (IADL), and psychosocial well-being (CES-D scale, fear of falling questionnaire, self-perception of present and future health, mastery index, perceived quality of sleep, and intrusiveness) variables. RESULTS: Grip strength declined in all groups, and lower extremity range of motion showed limited but statistically significant changes. Lowered blood pressure before and after a 12-minute walk was seen following TC participation. Fear of falling responses and intrusiveness responses were reduced after the TC intervention compared with the ED group (P = .046 and P = .058, respectively). After adjusting for fall risk factors, TC was found to reduce the risk of multiple falls by 47.5%. CONCLUSIONS: A moderate TC intervention can impact favorably on defined biomedical and psychosocial indices of frailty. This intervention can also have favorable effects upon the occurrence of falls. Tai Chi warrants further study as an exercise treatment to improve the health of older people.  

Physiological profiles of male and female taekwon-do (ITF) black belts.
Author
Heller J; Peric T; Dlouh´a R; Kohl´ikov´a E; Melichna J; Nov´akov´a H
Address
Biomedical Research Centre, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic.
Source
J Sports Sci, 16(3):243-9 1998 Apr
Abstract
Baseline physiological and kinanthropometric data were collected for 11 male and 12 female elite taekwon-do athletes from the Czech national team for evaluation of anthropometry, aerobic and anaerobic capacities, strength, visual reaction time, pulmonary function, flexibility and explosive power of the lower limbs (vertical jump). Both male and female taekwon-do black belts demonstrated low adiposity (8.2 and 15.4% fat, BMI 21.9 and 22.0 kg m(-2), respectively), normal reactivity and pulmonary function, above average muscular strength, PWC-170 (3.4 vs 2.7 W kg(-1)) and aerobic power (54 vs 42 ml min(-1) kg(-1)), and a high flexibility (37 and 38 cm) and anaerobic performance (peak power output from a 30 s Wingate test=14.7 and 10.1 W kg(-1); anaerobic capacity=334 and 242 J kg(-1), in males and females, respectively). In male athletes, competitive performance was significantly related to maximum power output and upper limb reaction time only, whereas in females, performance was related to maximum power output and ventilatory threshold level. These variables accounted for 66 and 67% of the performance rank in males and females, respectively. Time-motion analysis of competition taekwon-do fighting (two times 2 min) revealed 3-5 s bouts of maximum exercise alternating with low-intensity periods. This elicits high heart rates (100% HRmax) and lactate responses (11.4 mmol l(-1) = 81% LAmax), which agrees well with the physiological characteristics of taekwon-do black belts measured in laboratory exercise tests.  

Discriminant effectiveness of psychological state measures in predicting performance outcome in karate competition.
Author
Terry PC; Slade A
Address
School of Physical Education and Sport, Brunel University College, Isleworth, Middlesex, England.
Source
Percept Mot Skills, 81(1):275-86 1995 Aug
Abstract
Male Shotokan karate players (karateka) (N = 208) completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and the Profile of Mood States about 40 minutes before a competition. Single-factor multivariate analysis of variance of preperformance mood and anxiety scores indicated significant differences between winning and losing competitors. Winners scored higher on Vigor, Anger, and Self-confidence, and lower on Tension, Depression, Fatigue, Confusion, Cognitive Anxiety, and Somatic Anxiety. Discriminant function analysis showed that 91.96% of participants could be correctly classified as winners or losers on the basis of preperformance mood scores. This figure rose to 93.47% when scores on the anxiety subscales were also included in the discriminant function analysis. Anxiety scores alone produced 78.89% discrimination. Mood profiles for winning karateka were in line with the "mental health" profile of Morgan except for above-average scores on Anger. This result supports the view of McGowan and Miller that anger may facilitate performance in karate competition. The capacity of measures of psychological state to discriminate performance exceeds previous reports, suggesting that karate performance may be exceptionally mood-dependent. These results suggest that interventions which increase scores on Vigor and Anger and reduce scores on Tension, Depression, Fatigue, and Confusion may be particularly efficacious for Shotokan karate performance.  

Hypoestrogenemia and rhabdomyelysis (myoglobinuria) in the female judoist: a new worrying phenomenon?
Author
De Cr´ee C; Lewin R; Barros A
Address
Department of Applied and Experimental Reproductive Endocrinology, Institute for Gyneco-Endocrinological Research, Leuven, Belgium.
Source
J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 80(12):3639-46 1995 Dec
Abstract
It is now well established that strenuous engagement in aerobic endurance sports may cause menstrual problems and hypoestrogenemia-related phenomena, such as osteoporosis. The present study was designed to assess whether the competitive practice of female judoists produces specific physiological changes in menstruation and bone and muscle metabolism. A test group of 17 white female judoists (mean VO2max, 50.9 +/- 2.8 mL/kg.min; mean percent body fat, 16.3 +/- 3.3%), a reference group of oarswomen, and a group of sedentary women participated in this study. Specific metabolic parameters were determined before and after a heavy 5-week pre-Olympic training period. With regard to anthropometrical characteristics, after a period of intensive training, female judoists significantly differed (P < 0.05) from their pretraining values for percent body fat (-2.2%) and number of oligomenorrheic individuals (+28.4%). Mean baseline posttraining luteal phase plasma levels of estrone (78 +/- 26 pmol/L), estradiol (85 +/- 70 pmol/L), LH (7.6 +/- 2.8 IU/L), and progesterone (13.4 +/- 3.1 nmol/L) were significantly lower than those in both reference groups, although pretraining values did not significantly differ from those in a group of oarswomen. Luteal phase posttraining urinary parameters of muscular catabolism (3-methylhistidine, 367 +/- 30 mmol/day) and collagen turnover (hydroxyproline, 678 +/- 14 mumol/L) were significantly higher than those in a group of oarswomen (3- methylhistidine, 183 +/- 18 mmol/day; hydroxyproline, 196 +/- 21 micrograms/mL). Total plasma spontaneous monocyte interleukin-1 activity, an experimental parameter for bone turnover and formation, was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in both female judoists (15.8 +/- 3.0% max) and oarswomen (7.1 +/- 1.8% max) than in sedentary women (5.2 +/- 2.2% max). These findings were accompanied by a subjective feeling of musculotendinous soreness and fatigue. Posttraining values for blood diagnostic enzymes, such as creatinine phosphokinase, glutamic oxalacetic transaminase, lactic dehydrogenase, and uric acid exceeded 2-5 times maximal normal laboratory reference values. We believe that these overtraining-like findings should be further examined to study the eventual causal relationship between hypoestrogenemia and rhabdomyelysis (myoglobinuria) and to fully understand the extent of these results and their importance to the female athlete's health.  

[Experiences and effects with 6 years of judo training in ambulatory rehabilitation of bronchial asthma in childhood]
Author
Kriegel VG
Address
Otto-von-Guericke-Universit¨at Magdeburg Institut f¨ur Erziehungswissenschaft, Magdeburg.
Source
Rehabilitation (Stuttg), 37(1):36-43 1998 Feb
Abstract
In view of backing up the potential for as normal a life as possible in the presence of chronic obstructive respiratory disease, quality rehabilitation concepts have for some ten years been discussed which recommend satisfactory levels of motor activity in particular during childhood and youth as a factor in stabilizing long-term health. A difficult prerequisite in this respect is choosing a sport adapted to the child's age and condition as well as providing adequate motivation, along with awareness of exercise- and training-induced stress and strain reactions. Several years of experience with Judo have shown that, in an ambulatory rehabilitation setting, the needs of schoolchildren with bronchial asthma too, may be answered by this competitive sport provided that several didactic and methodological premises are heeded. In light of its holistic educational approach and intermittent stress and strain profile, Judo is cut out for facilitating integration in the social community, hence contributing toward valuable personality characteristics and growth in a rehabilitative context in the face of the long-term course of the illness.  

Anxiety, self-confidence and performance in Tae Kwon-Do.
Author
Chapman C; Lane AM; Brierley JH; Terry PC
Address
Department of Sport Sciences, Brunel University, Isleworth, Middlesex, England, UK.
Source
Percept Mot Skills, 85(3 Pt 2):1275-8 1997 Dec
Abstract
142 male Tae Kwon-do competitors completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 about 1 hr. before competition. Multivariate analysis of variance showed that the players who won reported lower cognitive and somatic anxiety and higher self-confidence than those who lost. Discriminant function analysis indicated that 89 (62.68%) participants could be correctly classified as winners or losers on the basis of their precompetition Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 scores. The findings concur with previous research in karate.  

Anticipation of job loss or job change and cardiovascular risk factors: a study of retiring self-defense officials in Japan.
Author
Liu Y; Tokunaga S; Kono S; Nishikawa H; Ogawa S; Katsurada M; Shinchi K; Imanishi K
Address
Department of Public Health, School of Medicine, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
Source
J Epidemiol, 7(3):161-6 1997 Sep
Abstract
Self-defense officials in Japan are to retire at the age of early 50s. This unique situation prompted the
Author
s to investigate whether preexisting morbid conditions cause any difficulty in finding a post-retirement job and whether anticipation of job loss or job change, as measured by the status of post-retirement job and months remaining until retirement, was related to biological cardiovascular risk factors. The subjects were 2,228 male self-defense officials who received a preretirement health examination at three Self-Defense Forces Hospitals from 1991 to 1992; the period in time remaining until retirement ranged from 1-40 months (median 12 months), and 62% had one year or less until the retirement. The defined preexisting illnesses included a wide range of chronic, non-communicable diseases. Overall, the preexisting illness was unrelated to the determination of a post-retirement job. In men having 6 months or less until retirement, however, the security of post-retirement job was less frequent when they had the preexisting illness, especially cardiovascular diseases. In 1,839 men excluding those with the preexisting illness, the period until retirement was not adversely related to obesity, blood pressure, serum lipids, serum uric acid, or glucose intolerance whether the post-retirement job had been secured or not. The findings suggest that the preexisting illness decreases the chance of obtaining a post-retirement job, but do not provide any evidence that anticipation of job loss or job change due to early retirement exerts an adverse effect on biological cardiovascular risk factors.  

Ballistic movement performance in karate athletes.
Author
Zehr EP; Sale DG; Dowling JJ
Address
Division of Neuroscience, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
Source
Med Sci Sports Exerc, 29(10):1366-73 1997 Oct
Abstract
Nine male karate athletes and 13 untrained men did maximal voluntary isometric (MVC) and ballistic elbow extension actions, the latter unloaded (L0) and against a load equal to 10% MVC (L10). The karate group achieved greater (P < 0.05) isometric (32%) and ballistic action peak torque with L0 (30%) and L10 (40%). With L10 the ratio of ballistic action to isometric action, peak torque was 13% greater in the karate group, indicating a load specific training adaptation. With L0 the corresponding ratio did not differ significantly between groups. Ballistic action peak rate of torque development (51%, 51%) and peak acceleration (15%, 9%) with L0 and L10, respectively, were greater in the karate group. In contrast, peak velocity and movement time did not differ significantly between groups. Electromyographic recordings of agonist triceps and antagonist biceps were made during the isometric and ballistic actions. Since ballistic actions (L10) were initiated from a preloaded condition, the occurrence and duration of premovement agonist depression were monitored. In ballistic actions there were no group differences in agonist activation, the ratio of ballistic to isometric action agonist activation, or antagonist coactivation. Premovement agonist depression occurred infrequently in both groups, with no group differences. It is concluded that karate athletes have enhanced elbow extension ballistic performance, but it could not be related to amplified agonist activation, altered antagonist activation, or more frequent occurrence of agonist premovement depression.

 
Injuries in national karate competitions in Finland.
Author
Tuominen R
Address
Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Finland.
Source
Scand J Med Sci Sports, 5(1):44-8 1995 Feb
Abstract
The injuries sustained in 6 national karate competitions in Finland were studied by analyzing data from 450 bouts during the season 1991-1992. The analyzed data included a personal interview with each competitor and detailed information on the bouts and any injuries sustained. The overall probability of injury was 0.28 per bout. These injuries occurred to 16% of the 647 competitors. Occurrence of injury was greatest among adult men, which was pronounced in final bouts. Of all injuries diagnosed by the physicians for the competitions, more than 95% were localized to the head. The majority of these were minor injuries. Experienced competitors were more injury-prone than beginners. On the other hand, none of the background factors studied significantly affected the probability of injuring one's opponent. Most injuries and penalties, as well as full scores, were caused by direct punches to the head. From these findings it was concluded that a protective guard for the head together with modification of competition rules could significantly reduce injuries.  

Bone density and bone metabolic markers in active collegiate athletes: findings in long-distance runners, judoists, and swimmers.
Author
Matsumoto T; Nakagawa S; Nishida S; Hirota R
Address
Department of Sports Medicine, Faculty of Physical Education, Kokushikan University, Tokyo, Japan.
Source
Int J Sports Med, 18(6):408-12 1997 Aug
Abstract
We investigated the bone metabolic system status of 103 male and female volunteer collegiate athletes, who were actively pursuing one of three different sports: Long-distance running (LR); judo (JU); and swimming (SW). The following parameters were evaluated: total body bone mineral density (TMBD); bone-forming metabolic markers; serum procollagen type I C-peptide (PICP) levels; bone alkaline phosphatase (B-ALP) content; bone resorption markers, urinary pyridinoline (Pyd) and deoxypyridinoline (Dpd) levels. We found that the TBMD and urinary Dpd values in JU athletes were significantly higher (p < 0.001) than in athletes of the same sex in the other two groups. The urinary Pyd level in male JU athletes was also higher (p < 0.001) than that in the other two groups, but that in females JU athletes was only higher (p < 0.01) than that in female LR athletes. The PICP levels were similar to the TBMD values in all groups. No differences in bone density or in bone metabolic markers were seen in LR and SW athletes of the same sex. We thus conclude that differences in bone mineral density are in part due to the demands of the specific sport, and that they are reflected in bone metabolic markers. In addition, the status of bone metabolic turnover in male JU athletes in training may be hypermetabolic and as well as that of female JU athletes with regular menses cycles.

 
The effect of voluntary ventilation on acid-base responses to a Moo Duk Tkow form.
Author
Hetzler RK; Knowlton RG; Brown DD; Noakes TA
Address
Department of Human Services, Health and Physical Education, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 22903.
Source
Res Q Exerc Sport, 60(1):77-80 1989 Mar
Abstract
Voluntary control of breathing is taught in Moo Duk Tkow in order to maximize force during striking, kicking, and blocking. Form, a formalized practice routine which incorporates these techniques, is a short predetermined sequence of arm and leg movements performed at high intensity which includes a number of pauses. The purpose of this study was to investigate the acid-base and lactate responses to a beginning level form, Ki Cho I. Nine subjects, five black belts and four brown belts, were asked to perform Ki Cho I at competitive intensity. Arterialized finger capillary blood was drawn prior to and immediately after the form for the determination of pH, bicarbonate, base excess, and PCO2 by use of the Siggaard-Anderson Nomogram. Heart rate was obtained by ECG, and lactate was measured by enzymatic assay. Statistically significant differences (p less than .05) were found for all variables. Mean pre and post values (+/- standard deviations) were: pH 7.39 +/- .04 to 7.34 +/- .03; base excess -.3 +/- 1.2 to -2.8 +/- 1.7 mEq/L; bicarbonate 23.7 +/- 1.0 to 21.8 +/- 1.4 mEq/L; PCO2 39.9 +/- 3.9 to 45.1 +/- 5.4 mmHg; lactate 1.51 +/- .71 to 3.23 +/- 1.56 mM; and heart rate 74.9 +/- 12.6 to 132.1 +/- 17.0 bpm. The mean form time was 17.2 +/- 1.8 s. It was concluded that respiratory compensation does not occur and that respiratory acidosis may contribute to the metabolic acidosis.  

Physiological and performance responses to overtraining in elite judo athletes.
Author
Callister R; Callister RJ; Fleck SJ; Dudley GA
Address
Division of Sports Science, U.S. Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, CO 80909.
Source
Med Sci Sports Exerc, 22(6):816-24 1990 Dec
Abstract
To determine the effect of large and sudden increases in training volume on performance characteristics and the feasibility of using overtraining syndrome symptoms to monitor performance changes, 15 elite judo athletes were examined through 10 wk of training. Athletes performed their regular regimens of resistance (3 d.wk-1), interval (2 d.wk-1), and judo (5 d.wk-1) training in weeks 1-4. Interval and resistance training volumes increased by 50% in weeks 4-8 and returned to baseline in weeks 9-10. Judo training volume was unchanged in weeks 1-8 but increased by 100% in weeks 9-10. Assessments were made in weeks 2, 4, 8, and 10. Isokinetic strength of elbow and knee extensors and flexors increased significantly from weeks 2 to 4 (3-13%), was unchanged from weeks 4 to 8, and decreased significantly (6-12%) from weeks 4 to 10. Total time for 3 x 300 m intervals increased (P less than 0.05) between weeks 2 and 4 and between weeks 4 and 8, while total time for 5 x 50 m sprints decreased (P less than 0.05) from weeks 8 to 10 (less than 2%). Body fat percentage decreased (P less than 0.05) from weeks 2 to 10. Body weight, submaximal and maximal aerobic power, resting (sleeping) systolic and diastolic pressures, resting (sleeping) submaximal and maximal heart rates, exercising blood lactate levels, and vertical jump performance did not change significantly with increases in training volume. These results suggest that 6 wk of overtraining may affect some but not all aspects of performance and that performance may be affected before symptoms of the overtraining syndrome appear.  


Skinfolds and body composition of sports participants.
Author
Gualdi Russo E; Gruppioni G; Gueresi P; Belcastro MG; Marchesini V
Address
Istituto di Antropologia, Universit`a degli Studi, Bologna, Italy.
Source
J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 32(3):303-13 1992 Sep
Abstract
Body composition of 1815 North-Italian young sports participants in relation to sex, age, sport and level of performance was investigated. About thickness and anatomical distribution of subcutaneous fat females showed skinfolds thicker than males. Significant differences were observed in skinfold thicknesses means of different sport-groups. Subscapular and forearm skinfolds were the best discriminant variables for males and females respectively. Body density was estimated according to Katch and McArdle (1973) and Durnin and Womersley (1974) equations. Males showed higher body density and lower fat percentage values than females. The lowest value of body density and the highest fat percentage were in male martial art competitors and in females practising skating and athletics. The highest values of body density and the lowest of fat percentage were in males practising athletics and rowing and in female martial art competitors. Highest and lowest values of fat-free mass were in games players and in soccer players and gymnasts respectively. "High aptitude" subjects showed higher fat-free mass values than "middle aptitude" group, besides a tendency towards higher body density values and lower fat percentage than "middle aptitude" group. With aging body density decreased whereas fat percentage and fat-free mass increased.  


Analysis of the effect of competitive trait anxiety on performance in Taekwondo competition.
Author
Finkenberg ME; DiNucci JM; McCune ED; McCune SL
Address
Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX 75962-3015.
Source
Percept Mot Skills, 75(1):239-43 1992 Aug
Abstract
This study examined the effect of competitive trait anxiety on performance in open- (sparring) and closed- (forms) skills in Taekwondo. 58 subjects responded to the Sports Competition Anxiety Test immediately prior to competition. Subjects were categorized into groups showing high, medium, and low competitive anxiety to assess whether differences on the variables of sparring and forms were significantly related with scores on competition anxiety, age, or gender after adjusting for the covariate of years of competition. Multivariate analysis of covariance showed no significant differences between subjects and the normative samples on competitive anxiety scores except for boys, whose scores were significantly higher than those of a normative sample of male youth athletes.  


Efficacy of Tai Chi, brisk walking, meditation, and reading in reducing mental and emotional stress.
Author
Jin P
Address
Department of Psychology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia.
Source
J Psychosom Res, 36(4):361-70 1992 May
Abstract
Tai Chi, a moving meditation, is examined for its efficacy in post-stressor recovery. Forty-eight male and 48 female Tai Chi practitioners were randomly assigned to four treatment groups: Tai Chi, brisk walking, mediation and neutral reading. Mental arithmetic and other difficult tests were chosen as mental challenges, and a stressful film was used to produce emotional disturbance. Tai Chi and the other treatments were applied after these stressors. After all treatments, the salivary cortisol level dropped significantly, and the mood states were also improved. In general the stress-reduction effect of Tai Chi characterized moderate physical exercise. Heart rate, blood pressure, and urinary catecholamine changes for Tai Chi were found to be similar to those for walking at a speed of 6 km/hr. Although Tai Chi appeared to be superior to neutral reading in the reduction of state anxiety and the enhancement of vigour, this effect could be partially accounted for by the subjects' high expectations about gains from Tai Chi. Approaches controlling for expectancy level are recommended for further assessment.  


Self-defense training for college women.
Author
Cummings N
Address
Department of Human Service Studies, Cornell University.
Source
J Am Coll Health, 40(4):183-8 1992 Jan
Abstract
This article explores the effectiveness of self-defense training for college women. Advocates of self-defense training believe these courses will not only provide women with the physical survival techniques necessary to repel attacks effectively, but that this kind of training will also help to prevent future violence by developing traits such as assertiveness and confidence in individuals. There is evidence that women who convey such characteristics are less likely to be victimized. Opponents argue that self-defense training does not properly prepare women for an attack, does not adequately
Address
acquaintance rape threats, and can provide a dangerous false sense of security to students. This article reviews the relevant literature, outlines practical suggestions for initiatives in this area, and describes a model self-defense course at one university. Guidelines for evaluation and implications for university policy and program decisions that ...
 


Metabolic and cardiorespiratory responses to the performance of Wing Chun and T'ai Chi Chuan exercise.
Author
Schneider D; Leung R
Address
Department of Health, Sport, and Leisure Studies, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115.
Source
Int J Sports Med, 12(3):319-23 1991 Jun
Abstract
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the metabolic and cardiorespiratory responses to the continuous performance of Wing Chun and T'ai Chi Chuan exercise. No significant differences in VO2max or HRmax obtained during treadmill exercise were found between the practitioners of the two styles. Average values for oxygen uptake (VO2) were 23.3 +/- 7.5 ml.kg-1.min-1 (6.6 METS) and 16.0 +/- 3.9 ml.kg-1.min-1 (4.6 METS) for Wing Chun and T'ai Chi Chuan exercise, respectively. Mean heart rates obtained during exercise were 137 +/- 25 beats.min-1 for Wing Chun and 116 +/- 22 beats.min-1 for T'ai Chi Chuan exercise. These exercise values corresponded to 52.4% of VO2max and 70.5% of HRmax for Wing Chun and only 36.4% of VO2max and 59.8% of HRmax for T'ai Chi Chuan exercise. Thus, only the continuous performance of Wing Chun exercise elicited VO2 and HR responses that would be expected to bring about a cardiorespiratory training effect in subjects with a relatively low initial VO2max. The ventilatory equivalent for oxygen (VE/VO2) obtained during T'ai Chi Chuan exercise (21.7) was significantly lower than for Wing Chun exercise (24.2), suggesting that T'ai Chi practitioners utilize efficient breathing patterns during exercise. Both Wing Chun and T'ai Chi Chuan styles may have a small static component that produces a slightly elevated heart rate relative to metabolic load when compared to traditional aerobic activities. However, the effect was not severe and these forms of exercise should not be considered dangerous for individuals at high risk for cardiovascular disease.    


Physiological characteristics of elite judo athletes.
Author
Callister R; Callister RJ; Staron RS; Fleck SJ; Tesch P; Dudley GA
Address
Sports Science Division, U.S. Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs 80909.
Source
Int J Sports Med, 12(2):196-203 1991 Apr
Abstract
In order to provide some understanding of the physiological capacities underlying successful judo performance, representative values for a variety of physiological variables were determined in nationally ranked male (n = 18) and female (n = 9) judo athletes. Body composition, aerobic capacity, isokinetic elbow and knee flexor and extensor strength, and muscle fiber size and composition of the vastus lateralis were examined. Comparisons across weight divisions indicate that the values of many characteristics varied as a function of size. As weight division increased, relative VO2 decreased (r = -0.53 and -0.63 for males and females, respectively), % body fat increased (r = 0.64, 0.72), and the cross sectional areas of Type I (r = 0.55, 0.77) and Type IIA (r = 0.47, = 0.76) muscle fibers increased. Among females in particular, athletes in the higher weight divisions were stronger relative to LBM than those in the lower division. These results indicate that the physiological profiles of lower and upper weight division elite judo players differ markedly. It is suggested that the factors responsible for success may be specific to each weight division and may represent a compromise between making weight and maximizing physiological capacities and performance.  


Blood pressure and heart rate reactivity to mental strain in adolescent judo athletes.
Author
Szab´o A; P´eronnet F; Frenkl R; Farkas A; Petrekanits M; M´esz´aros J; Het´enyi A; Szab´o T
Address
Universit´e de Montr´eal, D´epartement d'´education physique, Qu´ebec, Canada.
Source
Physiol Behav, 56(2):219-24 1994 Aug
Abstract
This exploratory investigation examined the association between maximal aerobic power (VO2max) and blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) reactivity to mental challenge. Adolescent male judo athletes (n = 20) performed a 2-min mental arithmetic. Heart rate was recorded before, during, and after the arithmetic, and BP was recorded before and after the mental challenge. Blood pressure in the immediate stress-recovery period was not related to VO2max, but subjects having a higher maximal aerobic power showed faster HR recovery from mental stress than those having a lower VO2max. Subjects who showed earlier peak HR responses, during the stress episode, demonstrated lower average HR reactivity than subjects who attained the maximal HR response later in the stress period. The relationship between the interval to reach peak HR and the magnitude of reactivity deserves further attention. However, at present these findings should be viewed as tentative because of the uniqueness and size of the sample.  


Effects of positive and negative music on performance of a karate drill.
Author
Ferguson AR; Carbonneau MR; Chambliss C
Address
Department of Psychology, Ursinus College, Collegeville, PA 19426.
Source
Percept Mot Skills, 78(3 Pt 2):1217-8 1994 Jun
Abstract
Although athletes frequently report using music while training or before an event, laboratory studies have not detected a beneficial effect, so the influence of positive and negative music on performance of a selected karate drill was investigated in this double-blind study using 14 volunteers from two Shotokan karate schools. Each subject performed a preselected drill three times following positive and negative music and white noise in a random order. Performance of the drill was rated on a 7-item, 5-point scale by 2 rates. Differences among conditions were assessed via a with-in-subject t test for paired scores. The subjects' self-evaluation of their performance was also examined. Enhancement of performance for both types of music over white noise was significant.  


Aggressive behavior as a function of Taekwondo ranking.
Author
Skelton DL; Glynn MA; Berta SM
Address
Department of Geography/Geology, Indiana State University, Terre Haute 47803.
Source
Percept Mot Skills, 72(1):179-82 1991 Feb
Abstract
This study examined the effect taekwondo training has on the level of aggression of children between the ages of 6 and 11 yr. 68 students (boys and girls) were tested using a behavior checklist designed to measure children's aggression. Analysis indicated a significant inverse relationship between the children's taekwondo rank and their aggression.  


Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: an extended study of self-defence officials in Japan.
Author
Wakabayashi K; Nakamura K; Kono S; Shinchi K; Imanishi K
Address
Department of Public Health, National Defense Medical College, Saitama, Japan.
Source
Int J Epidemiol, 23(2):307-11 1994 Apr
Abstract
BACKGROUND. It remains controversial whether the relation between alcohol intake and blood pressure is linear or non-linear. METHODS. The relation between alcohol intake and blood pressure was investigated in 2341 male self-defence officials who received a preretirement health examination at the Self-Defense Forces Fukuoka Hospital between October 1986 and December 1990. Average alcohol intake in the past year was ascertained by a self-administered questionnaire. The study excluded past drinkers, and allowed for smoking, body mass index and glucose tolerance. RESULTS: Blood pressure was higher at higher levels of alcohol intake across the range from 0 to 40-59 ml of alcohol per day, but was not progressively higher in men consuming > or = 60 ml per day. Blood pressure was significantly higher even among light drinkers (< 20 ml per day) compared to non-drinkers; adjusted mean differences were 3.1 mmHg (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.1-5.2) in systolic pressure and 2.1 mmHg (95% CI: 0.7-3.5) in diastolic pressure. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings do not support the existence of a threshold in the relation between alcohol and blood pressure.  


[Punch drunk syndrome due to repeated karate kicks and punches]
Author
Aotsuka A; Kojima S; Furumoto H; Hattori T; Hirayama K
Address
Department of Neurology, Chiba University School of Medicine.
Source
Rinsho Shinkeigaku, 30(11):1243-6 1990 Nov
Abstract
We reported a 39-year-old man with punch drunk syndrome who had cerebellar ataxia, seizure and dementia. CT scan of the brain revealed remarkable atrophy and enlargement of the ventricular system. MRI of the brain showed severe atrophy which was especially evident in the frontal base. On RI cisternography both early ventricular reflux at 3 hours and delayed ventricular stasis at 52 hours were found, which resembled the findings of the normal pressure hydrocephalus. The MRI and RI cisternographic findings suggested that the remarkable brain atrophy and enlargement of the ventricular system were caused by repeated KARATE traumas including minor brain contusion or subarachnoid hemorrhage in the base of the brain, since traumatic brain contusions affect particularly the orbital surfaces of the frontal lobes and the lateral and inferior surfaces of the temporal lobes. Communicating hydrocephalus may be one of the pathogenesis of punch drunk syndrome.  


Oxygen uptake, heartrate and blood lactate responses to the Chito-Ryu Seisan kata in skilled karate practitioners.
Author
Zehr EP; Sale DG
Address
Department of Physical Education, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario.
Source
Int J Sports Med, 14(5):269-74 1993 Jul
Abstract
To evaluate the efficacy of Seisan kata as an aerobic power training mode, four male (28.5 +/- 4.2 y) Chito-Ryu karate black belt practitioners did kata continuously for 10 min. In separate sessions the kata (formal, organized movement sequences) were done at rates of 1 (PACE) and 2 (FAST) kata "cycles" per minute. Heartrate (HR) and VO2 were monitored continuously during the sessions. VO2 during the PACE and FAST sessions averaged 73 +/- 3 and 94 +/- 2% of leg cycling VO2peak, respectively. The corresponding HRs were 93 +/- 6 and 101 +/- 3% of HRmax (leg cycle test). PACE and FAST post-exercise blood lactates were 12 +/- 4 and 22 +/- 6%, respectively, of the maximal leg cycle test values. These data indicate that karate kata can be used as an effective and specific means for training aerobic power in karate practitioners.      


Taping of foot and ankle for Korean karate.
 
Author
Agnew PS
Address
Eastern Virginia Graduate School of Medicine, Norfolk 23464.
Source
J Am Podiatr Med Assoc, 83(9):534-6 1993 Sep
Abstract
In the practice of Korean karate, the foot is often used as a weapon in self defense. Injuries to the foot are common. Analysis of patterns to these injuries and requirements of the sport led to the development of a strapping technique for protecting the foot from the most common injuries.  


[Judo in a training group for children with asthma]
Author
Huhnerbein J; Achtzehn R; Kriegel V
Address
Klinik f¨ur Kinderheilkunde, Medizinischen Akademie Magdeburg.
Source
Kinderarztl Prax, 61(7-8):264-8 1993 Oct
Abstract
15 asthmatics of 7-14 years of age were trained in a special judo training group together with healthy children. The step-like training programme was composed in such a manner that an exercise-induced bronchospasm was kept as low as possible whereas the coordination, flexibility, physical and psychical resistance were improved. By means of adapted lung function tests the children were controlled, the aim was not so much to prove an improvement of functional values but rather to avoid injuries. Reactions confirmed by means of the sensitive flow-volume curve method did not present any clinical problems. Exercise-induced reactions occurred most frequently, if at all, after a warming-up phase and in the middle of the 14 training weeks. Both at the end of every lesson and at the end of the whole training course the number and internity of reactions decreased. Children suffering from exercise-induced asthma could be trained by means of judo sport without any problems. A combatant sport, such as judo, is particularly qualified for the improvement of motivation, coordination, dexterity and integration into the community of healthy children to increase self-confidence. Asthma sport groups are a medical and paedagogical necessity.    


Kung-Fu: synthesis of wheelchair sport and self-protection.
Author
Madorsky JG; Scanlon JR; Smith B
Address
Casa Colina Hospital for Rehabilitative Medicine, Pomona, CA 91767.
Source
Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 70(6):490-2 1989 Jun
Abstract
As persons with disabilities enter the mainstream of society, and as the incidence of violent crime in society rises, disabled persons become victims of violent crime more frequently. It is vital for citizens with significant physical limitations to take precautionary steps for their own safety. Martial arts offer time-honored methods of self-protection for members of society who are physically disadvantaged. The case history of a young man with paraplegia is used to illustrate the potential of Kung-Fu as a sport and as a method of training for self-protection and survival  


Time-of-day dependence of isokinetic leg strength and associated interday variability.
Author
Wyse JP; Mercer TH; Gleeson NP
Address
Division of Sport, Health and Exercise, School of Sciences, Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent, UK.
Source
Br J Sports Med, 28(3):167-70 1994 Sep
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to assess the interday variability and time-of-day effects on selected isokinetic leg strength indices. Nine adult collegiate sportsmen (mean(s.e.) age 19.6(0.5) years; mean(s.e.) height 1.81(0.02) m; mean(s.e.) body mass 76.5(3.1) kg) completed a series of nine test sessions, organized so that each subject was tested three times within a day (08.00-09.00 hours; 13.00-14.00 hours; 18.00-19.30 hours), on three occasions, each separated by a minimum of 7 days. Gravity-corrected indices of extension peak torque (EPT), flexion peak torque (FPT), and the peak torque ratio (PTR), at contraction velocities of 1.05 rad s-1 and 3.14 rad s-1, were calculated for each subject using an isokinetic dynamometer. Two-way repeated measures analysis of variance of coefficient of variation (V%) scores revealed no significant differences in performance variability across within-subject factors of time-of-day and performance index (P > 0.05). Overall mean(s.e.) V% for scores across experimental conditions were 3.97(0.72)% at 1.05 rad s-1 and 5.98(1.23)% at 3.14 rad s-1, suggesting that similar levels of measurement error occur between 08.00-19.30 hours. One-way repeated measures analysis of variance of absolute strength indices (EPT, FPT and PTR) revealed that significantly higher scores were achieved during session 3 (18.00-19.30 hours), with mean(s.e.) values of 249.1(40.0) N m, 149.0(32.3) N m, 59.5(5.0)% at 1.05 rad s-1, and 172.1(38.7) N m, 121.3(27.7) N m, 71.1(6.2)% at 3.14 rad s-1, respectively (P < 0.05). This finding appears to be consistent with current knowledge about time-of-day effects on the assessment of muscular strength. Thus for stable and maximal values to be obtained during isokinetic leg testing, the use of multiple-trial protocols is recommended, with testing occurring as close to 18.00-19.30 hours as possible. In addition, the observed significant time-of-day effect suggests that appropriate comparison of maximal isokinetic leg strength can only be achieved based on data obtained within 30 min of the same time of day.  


Body composition and isokinetic strength of professional Sumo wrestlers.
Author
Kanehisa H; Kondo M; Ikegawa S; Fukunaga T
Address
Department of Life Sciences (Sport Sciences), University of Tokyo, Japan.
Source
Eur J Appl Physiol, 77(4):352-9 1998 Mar
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the profiles of body composition and force generation capability in professional Sumo wrestlers. The subjects were 23 professional Sumo wrestlers [mean age 22.0 (SEM 1.2) years] including those ranked in the lower- (Jonokuchi, n=10), middle- (Sandanme, n=8) and higher-division (Makuuchi, n=5), 22 weight-classified athletes [5 judo athletes, 5 wrestlers, and 12 weight lifters, mean age 20.7 (SEM 0.7) years], and 21 untrained men [mean age 20.1 (SEM 0.2) years]. In the Sumo wrestlers, body mass ranged between 77.0 and 150.0 kg, body mass index between 25.9 and 44.5 kg x m(-2), relative fat mass (%FM) between 11.9 and 37.0%, and fat-free mass (FFM) between 59.1 and 107.6 kg. The Sumo wrestlers showed significantly higher %FM and smaller elbow and knee extensor cross-sectional areas (CSA) than the weight-classified athletes who weighed from 90.4 kg to 133.2 kg. Moreover, isokinetic forces in the flexion and extension of elbow and knee joints, respectively, at three constant velocities of 1.05, 3.14 and 5.24 rad x s(-1) were significantly lower in the Sumo wrestlers than in the weight-classified athletes and untrained subjects when expressed per unit of body mass. However, the median value of FFM relative to body height in the higher-division Sumo wrestlers was ranked high in the range of magnitude among those reported previously in the literature for heavyweight athletes. Moreover, the results on the comparisons within the Sumo wrestlers showed that not only FFM but also force generation capability, expressed both as an absolute term and as a value relative to both body mass and muscle CSA, might be factors contributing to the performance of Sumo wrestlers.  


Contrasting plasma free amino acid patterns in elite athletes: association with fatigue and infection.
Author
Kingsbury KJ; Kay L; Hjelm M
Address
MDL Laboratory, London, United Kingdom.
Source
Br J Sports Med, 32(1):25-32; discussion 32-3 1998 Mar
Abstract
AIM: There is little information on the plasma free amino acid patterns of elite athletes against which fatigue and nutrition can be considered. Therefore the aim was to include analysis of this pattern in the medical screening of elite athletes during both especially intense and light training periods. METHODS: Plasma amino acid analysis was undertaken in three situations. (1) A medical screening service was offered to elite athletes during an intense training period before the 1992 Olympics. Screening included a blood haematological/biochemical profile and a microbial screen in athletes who presented with infection. The athletes were divided into three groups who differed in training fatigue and were considered separately. Group A (21 track and field athletes) had no lasting fatigue; group B (12 judo competitors) reported heavy fatigue at night but recovered overnight to continue training; group C (18 track and field athletes, one rower) had chronic fatigue and had been unable to train normally for at least several weeks. (2) Athletes from each group were further screened during a post-Olympic light training period. (3) Athletes who still had low amino acid levels during the light training period were reanalysed after three weeks of additional protein intake. RESULTS: (1) The pre-Olympics amino acid patterns were as follows. Group A had a normal amino acid pattern (glutamine 554 (25.2) micromol/l, histidine 79 (6.1) micromol/l, total amino acids 2839 (92.1) micromol/l); all results are means (SEM). By comparison, both groups B and C had decreased plasma glutamine (average 33%; p<0.001) with, especially in group B, decreased histidine, glucogenic, ketogenic, and branched chain amino acids (p<0.05 to p<0.001). None in group A, one in group B, but ten athletes in group C presented with infection: all 11 athletes had plasma glutamine levels of less than 450 micromol/l. No intergroup differences in haematological or other blood biochemical parameters, apart from a lower plasma creatine kinase activity in group C than in group B (p<0.05) and a low neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio in the athletes with viral infections (1.2 (0.17)), were found. (2) During post-Olympic light training, group A showed no significant amino acid changes. In contrast, group B recovered normal amino acid levels (glutamine 528 (41.4) micromol/l, histidine 76 (5.3) micromol/l, and total amino acids 2772 (165) micromol/l) (p<0.05 to p<0.001) to give a pattern comparable with that of group A, whereas, in group C, valine and threonine had increased (p<0.05), but glutamine (441 (24.5) micromol/l) and histidine (58 (5.3) micromol/l) remained low. Thus none in group A, two in group B, but ten (53%) in group C still had plasma glutamine levels below 450 micromol/l, including eight of the 11 athletes who had presented with infection. (3) With the additional protein intake, virtually all persisting low glutamine levels increased to above 500 micromol/l. Plasma glutamine rose to 592 (35.1) micromol/l and histidine to 86 (6.0) micromol/l. Total amino acids increased to 2761 (128) micromol/l (p<0.05 to p<0.001) and the amino acid pattern normalised. Six of the ten athletes on this protein intake returned to increased training within the three weeks. CONCLUSION: Analysis of these results provided contrasting plasma amino acid patterns: (a) a normal pattern in those without lasting fatigue; (b) marked but temporary changes in those with acute fatigue; (c) a persistent decrease in plasma amino acids, mainly glutamine, in those with chronic fatigue and infection, for which an inadequate protein intake appeared to be a factor.  


Acute injuries in soccer, ice hockey, volleyball, basketball, judo, and karate: analysis of national registry data [see comments]
Author
Kujala UM; Taimela S; Antti-Poika I; Orava S; Tuominen R; Myllynen P
Address
Unit for Sports and Exercise Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland.
Source
BMJ, 311(7018):1465-8 1995 Dec 2
Abstract
OBJECTIVE--To determine the acute injury profile in each of six sports and compare the injury rates between the sports. DESIGN--Analysis of national sports injury insurance registry data. SETTING--Finland during 1987-91. SUBJECTS--621,691 person years of exposure among participants in soccer, ice hockey, volleyball, basketball, judo, or karate. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Acute sports injuries requiring medical treatment and reported to the insurance company on structured forms by the patients and their doctors. RESULTS--54,186 sports injuries were recorded. Injury rates were low in athletes aged under 15, while 20-24 year olds had the highest rates. Differences in injury rates between the sports were minor in this adult age group. Overall injury rates were higher in sports entailing more frequent and powerful body contact. Each sport had a specific injury profile. Fractures and dental injuries were most common in ice hockey and karate and least frequent in volleyball. Knee injuries were the most common cause of permanent disability. CONCLUSIONS--Based on the defined injury profiles in the different sports it is recommended that sports specific preventive measures should be employed to decrease the number of violent contacts between athletes, including improved game rules supported by careful refereeing. To prevent dental injuries the wearing of mouth guards should be encouraged, especially in ice hockey, karate, and basketball.  


Gradual and rapid weight loss: effects on nutrition and performance in male athletes.
Author
Fogelholm GM; Koskinen R; Laakso J; Rankinen T; Ruokonen I
Address
Department of Applied Chemistry and Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Finland.
Source
Med Sci Sports Exerc, 25(3):371-7 1993 Mar
Abstract
We studied seven male wrestlers and three judo athletes (weight 55-93 kg) during two weight reductions. In the "gradual" procedure (GP), a 5.0 +/- 0.4% (mean +/- SEM) weight loss was achieved in 3 weeks by energy restriction. In the "rapid" procedure (RP), 6.0 +/- 0.6% of body weight was lost in 2.4 days by fluid and diet restriction and forced sweating, and followed by a 5-h "loading" (food and drinks ad libitum). The net weight loss after GP and loading was 2.7 +/- 0.5%. Protein intakes (4-d food records) during GP and RP were 71 +/- 16 and RP 56 +/- 17 g.d-1, respectively. Carbohydrate intakes were 239 +/- 56 (GP) and 182 +/- 55 g.d-1 (RP). During GP and RP, mean thiamin, magnesium, and zinc intakes were at or below the respective recommendation. Thiamin, riboflavin, potassium, iron, and zinc status, assessed from blood chemistry, remained stable during both procedures. Changes in vitamin B6 indicator (E-ASTAC) and S-magnesium concentration were different (P < 0.01) between the procedures, suggesting negative trends during GP. Sprint (30-m run) and anaerobic (1-min Wingate test) performance was similar throughout the study. Following GP, vertical jump height with extra load increased by 6-8% (P < 0.01). Jumping results were not affected by RP. Hence, < or = 5% loss in body weight by either method did not impair experienced athletes' performance.  


Length of training, hostility and the martial arts: a comparison with other sporting groups.
Author
Daniels K; Thornton E
Address
School of Management, Cranfield Institute of Technology, Bedfordshire, UK.
Source
Br J Sports Med, 26(3):118-20 1992 Sep
Abstract
Previous research has indicated that training in the martial arts leads to a reduction in levels of hostility. However, such research has only compared hostility within martial arts groups. The present research compares two martial arts groups and two other sporting groups on levels of assaultive, verbal and indirect hostility. Moderated multiple regression analyses revealed a significant interaction between length of training in the respondent's stated sport and whether that sport was a martial art in predicting assaultive and verbal hostility. The form of the interaction suggests that participation in the martial arts is associated, over time, with decreased feelings of assaultive and verbal hostility.  


Physical performance attributes of junior and senior women, juvenile, junior, and senior men judokas.
Author
Little NG
Address
Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Arts and Science, University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.
Source
J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 31(4):510-20 1991 Dec
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to describe the physical performance abilities of high level, developing Juvenile men and Junior and Senior men and women judokas. The subjects were 17 women and 43 men identified as members of the 1989 Alberta Judo Team by the Alberta Kodokan Black Belt Association. Physical characteristics and performance abilities were assessed through a battery of tests which included: height, weight and skinfold thickness; static strength (grips, arms, back, and total (TST)); flexibility (trunk forward flexion (TF)); maximum aerobic power (VO2max) (treadmill run); and upper body maximal anaerobic power (PP) and capacity (MP) (upper body Wingate test). Physical performance abilities were not different between the Junior and Senior women and substantially better than normative values for untrained women. Combined values (+/- SD) for Junior and Senior women were: VO2max 44.45 (3.56) ml/kg.min; PP 342.68 (76.92) w; MP 234.99 (46.62) w; TF 39.77 (6.39) cm; TST 127.91 (20.95) kg. The physical performance abilities of the Juvenile men: VO2max 57.62 (3.42) ml/kg.min; PP 406.89 (171.55) w; MP 281.68 (113.42) w; TF 39.35 (6.89) cm; TST 164.63 (51.07) kg; were superior to those of similarly aged, untrained young men, but comparable to those reported for trained adolescent athletes. The Junior men's physical performance abilities: VO2max 59.26 (3.95) ml/kg.min; PP 573.13 (116.83) w; MP 395.12 (61.95) w; TF 39.00 (4.39) cm; TST 221.60 (30.24) kg; were not different from the Senior men's, except for relative maximum oxygen uptake, and generally better than those values reported for other Junior judokas and Junior athletes in some other sports. The Senior men's physical performance abilities: VO2max 53.75 (5.57) ml/kg.min; PP 674.50 (133.26) w; MP 447.85 (87.19) w; TF 38.06 (8.86) cm; TST 223.37 (46.15) kg, were comparable with those reported for other developing, high level Senior judokas, but lower than the values reported for elite judokas competing internationally. These data support the position that successful participation in judo by high level, developing athletes is dependent upon appropriate levels of technical skill supported by above average endurance capacity, upper body anaerobic power and capacity, static strength, and flexibility.  


Body image and steroid use in male bodybuilders.
Author
Blouin AG; Goldfield GS
Address
Department of Psychiatry, Ottawa Civic Hospital, Ontario, Canada.
Source
Int J Eat Disord, 18(2):159-65 1995 Sep
Abstract
This study was designed to examine the association between body image and eating-related attitudes among male bodybuilders in relation to two athletic comparison groups, runners and martial artists. It was also of interest to examine whether steroid use may be associated with body image disturbances in athletes. The volunteer sample of 139 male athletes recruited from fitness centers comprised 43 bodybuilders, 48 runners, and 48 martial artists (tae kwon do practitioners). Standardized measures of body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, drive for bulk, bulimia, self-esteem, depression, maturity fears, and perfectionism as well as questionnaires designed to measure attitudes toward steroids, and rates of steroid use were administered in a manner that encouraged disclosure. Bodybuilders reported significantly greater body dissatisfaction, with a high drive for bulk, high drive for thinness, and increased bulimic tendencies than either of the other athletic groups. In addition bodybuilders reported significant elevations on measures of perfectionism, ineffectiveness, and lower self-esteem. They also reported the greatest use of anabolic steroids and most liberal attitudes towards using steroids. Steroid users reported that the most significant reason for using steroids was to improve looks. Steroid users reported an elevated drive to put on muscle mass in the form of bulk, greater maturity fears, and enhanced bulimic tendencies than nonusers. The results suggest that male bodybuilders are at risk for body image disturbance and the associated psychological characteristics that have been commonly reported among eating disorder patients. These psychological characteristics also appear to predict steroid use in this group of males.  


Prevention of injury in karate.
Author
Johannsen HV; Noerregaard FO
Address
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Aarhus County Hospital, University of Aarhus, Denmark.
Source
Br J Sports Med, 22(3):113-5 1988 Sep
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to analyse the effect of knuckle protection on the type and incidence of injuries in traditional karate contests. Knuckle protection was mandatory at the Danish karate championships 1983 and 1986 (290 matches, 0.26 injuries per match), and prohibited at the championships 1984 and 1985 (620 matches, 0.25 injuries per match). Head injuries were more common in the tournaments where fist pads were used. The incidences of transitory psychomotor disturbances following blows to the head were comparable. The severity of head injuries, however, decreased; minor head injuries dominated when fist pads were used (66%, compared with 44% without fist pads, p less than 0.01) and there were fewer lacerations and fractures. Injuries to the fingers or hands were also fewer--1.3% compared with 11% without protection (p less than 0.01). The use of fist pads reduced considerably the number of injuries requiring treatment (from 42% to 16%, p less than 0.01). In conclusion; fist pads offer some protection against injuries, especially to the hands, but additional measures are needed.  


Changes in muscle strength and speed of an unloaded movement after various training programmes.
Author
Voigt M; Klausen K
Address
Anatomy Dept. C, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
Source
Eur J Appl Physiol, 60(5):370-6 1990
Abstract
The effect of three different training programmes on the maximal speed of an unloaded movement (a karate punch) was studied. Three movement variables were selected: maximal speed of the hand (Vh,max), maximal speed of the shoulder (Vs,max) and elbow extension speed (theta E) simultaneous with Vh.max. The programmes were: training group 1 (TG 1, n = 8) - karate students, dynamic heavy progressive resistance exercise (incline situp and incline bench press) + punch bag exercise; training group 2 (TG 2, n = 8)-karate students, punch bag training; training group 3 (TG 3, n = 5)-no karate experience, dynamic heavy progressive resistance exercise (as in TG 1). The movement variables were calculated from chrono-cyclo photographic recordings of the punches (100 Hz). The level of significance was set at 5%. Sixteen weeks of training gave the following results: significant increases in dynamic strength in all the training groups (14%-53%). In TG 1 the Vh.max increased significantly from 8.49 m.s-1, SD 1.19 to 9.35 m.s-1, SD 1.29 (10%); Vs.max increased significantly in TG 1 by 32% (2.18 m.s-1, SD 0.56 to 2.87 m.s-1, SD 0.98) and in TG 2 by 14% (2.40 m.s-1, SD 0.61 to 2.74 m.s-1, SD 0.52), and in TG 3 theta E at Vh,max increased significantly from 28.6 rad.s-1, SD 4.3 to 32.2 rad.s-1, SD 4.5 (13%). No significant relationships between the changes in maximal muscle strength and the changes in movement speed were found.  


The hands of karate experts. Clinical and radiological findings.
Author
Crosby AC
Source
Br J Sports Med, 19(1):41-2 1985 Mar
Abstract
The hands and wrists of 22 karate instructors who had practiced the sport for a minimum of five years were reviewed. Radiological evidence of a total of ten fractures was found. There was no evidence that practice of the sport predisposed to the early onset of chronic tenosynovitis or osteoarthritis.  


Further development for testing the effects of pesticides on wolf spiders.
Author
Hof A; Heimann D; R¨ombke J
Address
Ginnheimer Hohl, Frankfurt/Main, Germany.
Source
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 31(3):264-70 1995 Aug
Abstract
Based on preliminary guidelines of the "Biologische Bundesanstalt f¨ur Land- und Forstwirtschaft" (BBA, Germany) for testing the effects of pesticides on wolf spiders (genus Pardosa, Lycosidae, Araneae), two test series were carried out with the pesticides Karate (a.i. lambda-cyhalothrin) and a noname product. At start of the test the pesticides were applied onto spiders and a sand substrate with an application apparatus. Thereafter, the mortality, the behavior, and the feeding rate were observed up to 14 days. Ninety-eight percent of the tested individuals belonged to the species Pardosa amentata. The results of the Karate experiments indicated a considerably higher reaction for males than for females. The aggression of the spiders proved to be a stress factor when the vessel was inhabited by more than one spider and caused higher mortality in individuals treated with pesticides. Spiders raised from cocoons in the laboratory were in general less sensitive than animals collected in the field and accustomed to laboratory conditions. Experiments performed with the noname pesticide in different seasons revealed that the sensitivity of the animals was influenced by their age. The parameters of mortality, behavior, and feeding rate proved to provide data adequate for evaluating the lethal and sublethal effects of the substances examined.